Eight history essay questions Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Eight history questions - Essay Example The â€Å"Black Codes† in the Mississippi allowed the Blacks to be arrested for vagrancy and used them as cheap labor. They were also prohibited from owning arms, holding large gatherings and enrolling in juries. In response to these â€Å"Black Codes† the Congress passed the Civil Rights Act in April 1866, which permitted blacks to enjoy many rights. President Johnson vetoed the Act saying it would â€Å"cause discord among races and this paved the way for his impeachment. During his trial, the Senate needed one more vote to reach the 2/3 rd majority and carry out the impeachment, but the single vote of Edmund G. Ross, a young Radical Republican, was instrumental in turning the tables in Johnson’s favor and so he remained in office. During the Civil War, on January 1st 1863, President Abraham Lincoln passed the Emancipation Proclamation which set free all the slaves in the rebellious states. This proclamation captured the minds and hearts of millions of African Americans and in turn served to turn the war into a war of freedom. Though thousands of fugitives were crowded into camps, the Government organized relief societies for the families to be taken care of. They organized aid and schools to teach the men, women and children to read and write thus providing the African Americans with an education. The Government also commissioned the Blacks into the army and other jobs which were not open to them before. Women of the Civil War were held in high esteem and they were allowed to take on politically active roles. During the Californian Gold Rush between 1849 and 1882, quite a large group of Chinese immigrants immigrated to the United States. Some of them worked alone where as others worked for other miners. The majority of them settled there permanently while others went back home with the money they had saved. During the 1870’s there was an economic crisis where people

Brief description of Elio Engineering Essay Example for Free

Brief description of Elio Engineering Essay Elio Engineering is a company founded by Paul Elio and Hari Sankara for development and creation of late 1990s-era car seats. Paul? s seat was part of a special class of automotive seats in the industry called all-belts-to-seat (ABTS), and it was named NC seat (NC for No Compromise). Paul design seat called NC No Compromise since this seat would revolutionize the automotive industry making performance, weight and costs better than the competition. Presently due to its high cost, ABTS was used mostly in luxury and high end vehicles but with the design and idea of Paul, this technology becomes cheaper and can be implemented across all vehicle types for increased safety and comfort. A typical conventional front seat is priced around $500, lower cost compared with the ABTS seat that is like $750. One complete system costs an average of $2500. The seat mechanism, consisting of recliner and tracks, constitutes the technological core of the seat system. †¢ An ABTS integrates the seat belt directly into the seat that is potentially safer because it â€Å"hugs† the occupant in the event of rear collision. †¢ Ease of use, higher comfort level, more attractive appearance and maneuverability of removable seats. In order to launch their product, and knowing that Bostrom was looking for and ABTS, Elio achieved an agreement with the firm, so they could use their site and their facilities (the computers and electronic equipment to warrant the quality of the seat, meet FMVSS and NHTSA standards) to develop the product, otherwise Elio wouldn? t have enough resources to produce and set up the seat. Bostrom planned to unveil the NC Seat at an annual trade show in March of 1999 in Louisville, Kentucky. The size of the US truck Market in that year was expected to be around the 500. 000 units, with the company commanding a market share of 50%, the European Market was about the same size, but Bostrom had no presence there. Elio expected to be able to get 2 to 5 % royalties on sales in the truck industry. However, Paul had concerns if Bostrom is the right partner in this venture where the ABTS seat has the potential to save millions of lives. Potential Market Size for Elio ABTS Seat Technology Elio’s ABTS seat system with its new technology, lighter weight, lesser components, higher safety and reduced costs has the potential to revolutionize the automotive industry and become the technology of choice for OEMs. The market potential in Northern America is 17 million units and up to 53 million units worldwide. As mentioned in the blue ocean strategy of six paths analysis, Elio can also look at alternate industries like heavy trucks, aircraft and passenger trains for its ABTS seat systems (Kim Mauborgne, 2006). Partnership with OEMs While the ultimate users of automotive technology are the customers who buy the cars, it is the OEM’s who make the decision on the seat system that needs to be selected for their vehicles. The OEM’s expect the seat system not only to fit the body of a particular car model but for it to become a part of the total interior design. The three biggest OEM players in the US market are GM, Ford and Diamler Chrysler with 29%, 25% and 16% of the market share. These OEMs use complex and sophisticated market segmentation technics based on demographics and lifestyles to design car interiors and seat systems. These OEMs wield enough power to dictate to the suppliers their requirements at very small operating margins of 2 to 5% (Burgelman, Christensen, Wheelwright, 2008). Also, it is particularly pertinent in engineering driven companies that assume developing new innovative products would generate fabulous success, which is not the case. The product might be successful, however the innovator might not. Considering the aforementioned points, it is important for Elio not to disclose their exact costs to OEMs and also do not rely totally on the innovation of their new ABTS seat system for continued success without a complimentary car interiors option (Kim Mauborgne, 2006). As a result, it is not recommended for Elio to directly approach the OEMs with their ABTS business proposition. Partnership with Competitors Elio Engineering began their initial collaboration with Bostrom Seating, a wholly owned subsidiary of Johnstown America Industries, Inc. (JAII) for prototyping and testing their design of ABTS for FMVSS and NHTSA standards adherence. While their results were successful and the partnership appeared lucrative, JAII’s capabilities in terms of OEM relationships, global presence, acquisition capability, existing alliances, JIT inventory, comfort engineering, CAD/CAM/CAE, benchmarking, research development, product development process, interior systems capabilities, total program management, vertical integration, purchasing, in-house design, system level testing and financial growth were either weak or non-existent (Burgelman, Christensen, Wheelwright, 2008). In this regards, for Elio Engineering, JAII can be seen as early adopters (Moore, 2002), but for Elio to move towards dramatic growth, they will need an early majority (Moore, 2002). In Northern America, Johnson Controls (JCI), Lear Corp. And Magna are the big tier-one players. They have about 60% of the market share. JCI is a global diversified technology and industrial leader in automotive seating, overhead systems and interior electronics (JohnsonControls, 2010). JCI has a strong to adequate positions in OEM relationships, global presence, acquisition capability, existing alliances, JIT inventory, comfort engineering, CAD/CAM/CAE, benchmarking, research development, product development process, interior systems capabilities, total program management, vertical integration, purchasing, in-house design, system level testing and financial growth. Lear Corp. is weaker than JCI in engineering and manufacturing abilities but compensated on systems integration and tier-two relationships. Magna did not excel in any particular area but it had adequate capabilities in most areas. Additionally, JCI and Lear Corp. have a strong global presence too with 27% and 25% respectively in Europe. All the three tier-one companies have the research development and manufacturing capabilities to transfer know-how to develop commercially viable products (Burgelman, Christensen, Wheelwright, 2008; White Bruton, 2007). For Elio Engineering, partnering with a tier-one operator is the practical option due to the following reasons : †¢ Easy access to extensive manufacturing capabilities. †¢ Access to global markets. †¢ Access to sophisticated research and development facilities. †¢ Strong relationships with OEMs. †¢ JIT Inventory and efficient supply chain management. †¢ Good tier-two relationships. For Elio Engineering, partnering with Lear Corp. would be the better than JCI for the following reasons : †¢ JCI has strong RD set-up and they would have their in-house development for ABTS technology. Hence, Elio will have less bargaining power with JCI and possible conflict from JCI’s in-house team. However, Lear Corp’s R D is weak and they would opt for the ABTS technology from Elio to be able to better compete with JCI. This will enable Elio to have the better hand in negotiations. †¢ Lear Corp has the second largest market share in both Northern America and Europe after JCI. Lear Corp will be able to take advantage of Elio’s ABTS solution to increase their market share. †¢ Earlier attempts to associate with JCI were not successful for Paul. The above points indicate that with Lear Corp, Elio will be able to engage in equal terms and be in a â€Å"win-win† situation more than with JCI. References Burgelman, R. , Christensen, C. Wheelwright, S. (2008).Strategic management of technology and innovation (5th ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin. Johnstown Controls. (2010). Company and Businesses. Retrieved from http://www. johnsoncontrols. com/ Kim, W. C. Mauborgne, R. (2005). Blue ocean strategy: How to create uncontested market space and make the competition irrelevant. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Moore, G. (2002). Crossing the chasm (Rev. ed. ). New York: HarperCollins Publishers. White, M. , Bruton, G. (2007). The management of technology and innovation: A strategic approach. Mason, OH: Thompson South-Western.

Aryan Invasion Theory :: essays papers

Aryan Invasion Theory The major theory that has been repeated throughout time, to interrupt the evolution of India and migration of man, has been the Aryan Invasion Theory. According to this account, India was invaded and conquered by a nomadic tribe of Indo-European tribes from Central Asia around 1500-100 BC. It was said that these light skinned nomads fought a major battle with the darker skinned "Dravidian Civilization, from which they took most of what later, became the Hindu culture." The Aryan Invasion Theory is based upon ruins that were discovered in the Indus valley. The Aryan people also cite how the Aryan Vedic scriptures explain a war between the powers of light and darkness. This was therefore interpreted throughout time, to mean that the war occurred between a lighter skinned civilization (Aryans) and more dark skinned civilization. Scholars believed that the Aryans came into India around the time of 1500 BC, since the Indus Valley culture was earlier than this, they concluded that it had to be preAryan. It was also assumed by these same scholars, much of them who were of Christian origin, and unsympathetic to the Vedic culture, that the Vedic culture originated from primitive nomads from Central Asia. Thus, the Vedic culture could not have found any "urban culture like that of the Indus Valley." The Vedic culture was thus said to be warriors of Central Asian decent who came into India with horse drawn chariots and iron weapons. However, there was never any chariots or iron discovered in Indus Valley sites. The whole idea of nomads with chariots has been challenged. How could these nomads travel through rough mountain valleys (in tough weather ) with these chariots? Horse drawn chariots, were vehicles that were most likely used in lands that were mostly flat. Therefore, it can be said that the metals and wheel fragments that were discovered could come from the Vedic culture. Opponents of the Aryan Invasion theory, point to many different flaws in the theory. First off, some scholars now believe that it may have been just a pure biased opinion that has been passed on throughout time. The Aryan Invasion Theory served to divide India into a northern Aryan and southern Dravidian culture, which were hostile to each other. This theory also gave the British an excuse in their conquest of India. They could claim to only be doing what their Aryan ancestors had previously done. Lastly, by implementing the Aryan Invasion Theory, the history and science of India was given a mostly Greek Aryan Invasion Theory :: essays papers Aryan Invasion Theory The major theory that has been repeated throughout time, to interrupt the evolution of India and migration of man, has been the Aryan Invasion Theory. According to this account, India was invaded and conquered by a nomadic tribe of Indo-European tribes from Central Asia around 1500-100 BC. It was said that these light skinned nomads fought a major battle with the darker skinned "Dravidian Civilization, from which they took most of what later, became the Hindu culture." The Aryan Invasion Theory is based upon ruins that were discovered in the Indus valley. The Aryan people also cite how the Aryan Vedic scriptures explain a war between the powers of light and darkness. This was therefore interpreted throughout time, to mean that the war occurred between a lighter skinned civilization (Aryans) and more dark skinned civilization. Scholars believed that the Aryans came into India around the time of 1500 BC, since the Indus Valley culture was earlier than this, they concluded that it had to be preAryan. It was also assumed by these same scholars, much of them who were of Christian origin, and unsympathetic to the Vedic culture, that the Vedic culture originated from primitive nomads from Central Asia. Thus, the Vedic culture could not have found any "urban culture like that of the Indus Valley." The Vedic culture was thus said to be warriors of Central Asian decent who came into India with horse drawn chariots and iron weapons. However, there was never any chariots or iron discovered in Indus Valley sites. The whole idea of nomads with chariots has been challenged. How could these nomads travel through rough mountain valleys (in tough weather ) with these chariots? Horse drawn chariots, were vehicles that were most likely used in lands that were mostly flat. Therefore, it can be said that the metals and wheel fragments that were discovered could come from the Vedic culture. Opponents of the Aryan Invasion theory, point to many different flaws in the theory. First off, some scholars now believe that it may have been just a pure biased opinion that has been passed on throughout time. The Aryan Invasion Theory served to divide India into a northern Aryan and southern Dravidian culture, which were hostile to each other. This theory also gave the British an excuse in their conquest of India. They could claim to only be doing what their Aryan ancestors had previously done. Lastly, by implementing the Aryan Invasion Theory, the history and science of India was given a mostly Greek

Fossil Fuel Consumption, Co2 And Its Impact On Global Climate Essays

Fossil Fuel Consumption, CO2 and Its Impact on Global Climate Background: At the beginning of human history, we had to satisfy our energy needs (for food, heat and movement) by using our own muscle power and gathering or hunting naturally available plants, animals and wood. Each stage in the evolution of human society (the development of farming, domestication of animals, harnessing of wind and water power) increased the average per capita energy use, but it was the Industrial Revolution and the exploitation of fossil fuels which marked the transformation of societies into the energy-intensive economies of today. Since the eighteenth century the industrialising countries have come to rely on non-renewable energy resources, and at present about 80 per cent (Myers, 1994) of the world's commercial energy is derived from oil, coal and gas. Although it has been observed that the growth of energy consumption is closely correlated with the increases in gross national product thus our economic development, the major sources of energy (that is fossil fuels) are 'stock resources'. Fossil fuels are consumed by use and the current consumption patterns are non-sustainable. It is recognised that energy conservation and the development of renewable energy sources will be needed to sustain economic growth. The quantity of ultimately recoverable fossil fuels is limited by geology and remains a matter of suspicion, but the view of the 1970s that scarcity was imminent is still popular. It is the 1973 Oil Crisis marked the transition from abundant, low-cost energy to an era of increasing prices and scarcity. Today concerns over scarcity have been overtaken by the question of whether human beings can afford to meet the environmental costs of continued fossil fuel consumption. One of the most widespread concern related to global climatic changes. Introduction: Climate represents normal weather condition of an area over a period of many years. This is in contrast to weather which is the day to day changes in the atmosphere. It is now realised that our global "climatic normals" had fluctuated in the past millions of years which was nowhere related to human activities. Nevertheless, with the increasing human population and our reliance on fossil fuels since the last century, we have definitely 'participated' in the climatic changes which are taking place to a certain e... ...creasing over the last decade. More on that, it is a fact that the burning of fossil fuels do release infrared-absorbing carbon dioxide to our atmosphere. Therefore, it is just a logical conclusion that the greenhouse is here, as it always does. It appears that there is excessive heating within the greenhouse which is induced by our increasing rate of fossil fuel consumption, and the problems that lies behind global climatic change are far reaching . Perhaps, the real limit to our fossil fuel consumption will be the CO2 problem but not the size of the resource. A Chinese proverb says that "prevention is better than cure." Approaches to energy conservation could be the key. Bibliography: Benarde, M. A., 1992, Global Warning†¦ Global Warming, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 52-65. Goudie, A., 1994, The Human Impact on the Natural Environment, Cambridge: The MIT Press, 301-7. Kraushaar, J. J. & Ristinen, R. A., Energy and Problems of a Technical Society, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 394-400. Myers, N., 1994, The Gaia Atlas of Planet Management, London: Gaia Books Limited, 96-113. Tolba, M. K., 1992, The World Environment 1972-1992, London: Chapman & Hall, 61- -71.

Euthanasia: Kantianism vs Utilitarianism Essay

The deliberate act of ending another’s life, given his or her consent, is formally referred to as euthanasia. At present, euthanasia is one of the most controversial social-ethical issues that we face, in that it deals with a sensitive subject matter where there is much uncertainty as to what position one ought to take. Deliberately killing another person is presumed by most rational people as a fundamental evil act. However, when that person gives his or her consent to do so, this seems to give rise to an exceptional case. This can be illustrated in the most common case of euthanasia, where the person who is willing to die suffers from an illness that causes great pain, and will result in his or her demise in the not-so-distant future. In this case, killing the person would seem to be the most humane and reasonable thing to do, whereas keeping the person alive would be akin to torture; which is also presumed to be a fundamental evil act. But euthanasia, in essence, is murder, and this might lead one to ask whether there can ever be an exception to murder? And if one were to make an exception in this case, what would then prevent us from making exceptions in other cases? In the worst case scenario, would this not leave an opening for cold-blooded murders to kill people without their consent, and make false claims that they did have their consent? There are a variety of positions, based on the numerous ethical theories that have been developed, that one can take in order to resolve the issue of euthanasia; but the positions I will be looking at in particular, are the positions based on John Stuart Mill’s ‘Utilitarianism’ ethical theory, and Immanuel Kant’s ‘Categorical Imperative’ ethical theory. According to Utilitarianism, euthanasia can be morally justified, whereas according to Kantianism, euthanasia is not morally justifiable; but I will argue that neither position provides an adequate resolution to the issue, due to the significant flaws that are inherent in the reasoning that led to their particular positions. According to Utilitarianism, ethics is primarily an empirical science; essentially implying that the moral standard must be based on human experiences, and not abstract principles that are largely impractical. Hence, based on an understanding of human experience Utilitarianism proposes that the ultimate end of every human action is simply pleasure, and the absence of pain. This fundamental idea then forms the basis for Utilitarianism’s Greatest Happiness Principle which states, â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure† (Mill, 7). Also, Utilitarianism asserts that actions are judged as moral solely based on their consequences, and not on their motives. So, if a person acts out of good intentions, but does not produce beneficial results, then his action does not qualify as a moral action. Finally, Utilitarianism asserts that an action is good only if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people. Therefore, an action that slightly increases your own pleasure, but in turn, dramatically decreases the pleasure of other, according to Utilitarianism is not moral action. Thus, in the context of the case mentioned in the introduction, the Utilitarian position on euthanasia would go something as follows: With respect to the individual who is willing to die, he/she would simply be happiest dead, and unhappiest alive. With respect to the people who care for the individual, they would be happy that he/she is alive, but unhappy at the same time because he/she is in great pain; or if the individual underwent euthanasia, happy because he/she is no longer in pain, but unhappy because he/she is dead. So, in applying the Utilitarian principle to this case, the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people occurs when the person is dead. The reason being that the people who care for the person are both happy and unhappy regardless of whether the person is dead or alive, but the person will only be happy if he/she is dead. Therefore, since euthanasia meets the moral standards set by Utilitarianism, it would support the act of euthanasia as a morally sound action. Unlike Utilitarianism however, Kantianism states that ethics is a purely a priori discipline, thus, independent of experience, and that ethical rules can only be found through pure reason. Also contrary to Utilitarianism, Kantianism asserts that the moral worth of an action should be judged on its motive and the action itself, and not on its consequences. Based on these ideas, Kantianism propose that an action is good only if it performed out a ‘good will’; which is the only thing that is good, in and of itself. To act out of a ‘good will’, one must act in accordance with a categorical imperative. According to Kant there is only one categorical imperative, which is to â€Å"act only on that maxim in which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law† (Kant, 528); and can also be formulated as â€Å"act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as means, but always at the same time as an end† (Kant, 532). Essentially, the categorical imperative states that your actions must not result in a practical contradiction, which can be determined by conceptualizing all other people performing the same act. To illustrate, if I were to make a promise with no intentions of keeping it, and I imagine all other people doing the same, then very idea of a promise would cease to have meaning, and thus, my action would give rise to a practical contradiction, and consequently, be immoral. Finally, the categorical imperative is an unconditional ought, which means that an action must be performed solely out of duty to the categorical imperative, without any ulterior motive, in order for it to be a moral action. Thus, with regard to euthanasia, Kantians would reject the act of euthanasia as a morally good action based on their reasoning that an action is good only if it acts in accordance with a categorical imperative. Taking the categorical imperative in terms of being able to act in ways that can, without contradiction, become a universal law, if one were to universalize killing another person – which is the fundamental act in euthanasia – this would result in a practical contradiction. That practical contradiction being if everyone were to kill one another, then there would be no people left in this world, and as a consequence, the very idea of murder would lose its meaning. Also, if one were to formulate the categorical imperative in terms of treating others (including oneself) as ends rather than means, euthanasia would violate the categorical imperative, in that the person is treated as a means by killing himself, to reach the end goal of eliminating the pain. Therefore, since euthanasia does not meet the moral standards set out by Kantianism, it would not support the act of euthanasia as a morally sound action. However, as I stated in my thesis, I believe that Utilitarianism, and Kantianism do not provide an adequate resolution to the issue of euthanasia, because of the significant flaws in their reasoning. With Utilitarianism, the significant flaw in their position lies in the fact that it is built on the false assumption that the consequences of actions can be predicted, when in actuality they cannot. For example, it is possible that the person, who underwent euthanasia because of the pain he/she suffered, could’ve been misdiagnosed and fully recovered shortly after. Also, inspired by his/her new life, the individual went on to form a charity that raised money for research in pain treatment, thereby increasing the happiness for a great many. Thus, under the utilitarian system, keeping the person alive in this scenario would have been the morally justified act, whereas killing the person would not have been. With Kantianism, the significant flaw in their position lies in the fact that they make an absolute, immutable statement – do not murder – without any consideration for the context in which murder takes place. It is unreasonable, and bordering on foolish, to claim to adequately resolve special cases of murder such as euthanasia through a simple, general statement without taking into consideration its context. Though it is indeed reasonable that deliberately killing another for the sake of harming them is an immoral act, in euthanasia, a person is killed by another only by their own consent, and for the most part, with a good motive. When a person is suffering tremendously and is most likely going to die anyways, it does not at all seem unreasonable to kill him. In fact, killing the person would seem to be the most humane act one can perform, and in not killing the person, and keeping him/her alive in such a state of pain and agony, would be like an indirect form of torture; which in Kantianism is not a moral act. Thus, for these reasons, the positions of Utilitarianism and Kantianism on euthanasia are inadequate in resolving the issue of euthanasia, and euthanasia still remains as a significant social-ethical problem in our contemporary society. Works Cited Mill, J. S. (1984). Excerpts from Utilitarianism, On Liberty and Considerations on Representative Government, 1, 4-42. London: Dent. Kant, I. (1956). Excerpts from Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton, 61-62, 64-67, 74, 80-92, 95-107. London: Unwin Hyman. Reprinted in E. Sober, Core Question in Philosophy: A Text with Readings, 520-540. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.

DEBT RETIREMENT IN PAKISTAN essays

DEBT RETIREMENT IN PAKISTAN essays The two gap theory suggests that the developing countries have to rely heavily on foreign capital in flows ( FCI s ) to fill two gaps: the import export gap and the savings investment gap.Despite the fact that all developing countries need FCIs for their development the volume the type: Project , non-project assistance The country size and the state of economic development mainly determines the size and type of FCIs . As a less developed country Pakistan has long been relying on foreign aid and has been the largest recipient of foreign direct investment. More over the external debt situation of an individual country may not seem to be interesting when analyzed from an international perspective. For example the external debt situation of a south Asian country as Pakistan. The external debt situation of this individual country has strong repercussions on their development. Debt is the largest capital in flow in Pakistan and it has played a critical role in the country development. The trends and pattern and the terms of have changed much in recent years. Pakistan lacks physical financial and human capital infrastructure and political and macro economic stability. Its economic structure remains in flexible and foreign transactions are regulated. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DEBT On one hand the debt augments the domestic resources of the recipient, helps to promote growth and structural transformation, assists to over come the balance of payments and government budget deficits, transfers advanced technology and improves human resources. On the other hand, foreign aid may distort domestic savings, introduce in appropriate technology, and increase the debt burden of the r ...

Debunking Ring a Ring a Roses

Debunking Ring a Ring a Roses There is a myth that the British children’s rhyme Ring a Ring a Roses is all about the plague- either the Great Plague of 1665-6 or the Black Death centuries earlier- and dates from those eras. The words describe the contemporary practice in treating it, and refer to the fate so many befell. The Truth The earliest known use of the rhyme is the Victorian era, and it almost certainly doesn’t date back to the plague (any of them). While the lyrics can be interpreted as being loosely connected to death and disease prevention, this is believed to be just that, an interpretation given in the mid-twentieth century by overeager commentators, and are not a direct result of plague experience, or anything to do with it. A Children’s Rhyme There are many variations in the words of the rhyme, but a common variant is: Ring a ring a rosesA pocket full of posesAtishoo, AtishooWe all fall down The last line is often followed by the singers, usually children, all falling down to the ground. You can certainly see how that variant sounds like it might be something to do with the plague: the first two lines as references to the bundles of flowers and herbs which people wore to ward away the plague, and the latter two lines referring to illness (sneezing) and then death, leaving the singers dead on the ground. It’s easy to see why a rhyme could be connected to the plague. The most famous of these was the Black Death, when a disease swept across Europe in 1346–53, killing over a third of the population. Most people believe this was the bubonic plague, which causes black lumps over the victim, giving it the name, although there are people who reject this. The plague was spread by the bacteria on fleas on rats and devastated the British Isles as much as continental Europe. Society, economy, and even war was changed by the plague, so why wouldn’t such a massive and horrifying event have ingrained itself into the public consciousness in the form of a rhyme? Robin Hood’s legend is about as old. The rhyme is linked to another outbreak of plague too, the Great Plague of 1665-6, and this is the one which was seemingly stopped in London by the Great Fire burning a huge urban area. Again, there are surviving stories of the fire, so why not a rhyme about the plague? One common variant in the lyrics involves ashes instead of atishoo, and is interpreted as either cremation of corpses or skin blackening from the diseased lumps. However, folklorists and historians now believe that the plague claims date only from the mid-twentieth century, when it became popular to give existing rhymes and sayings older origins. The rhyme began in the Victorian era, the idea it was plague-related began only a few decades ago.  However, so widespread was the rhyme in England, and so deep in children’s consciousness did it lodge, that many adults now connect it to the plague.